EDUCATION IN THE 20 TH CENTURY: Social & Historical Background. Source: Britannica Encyclopledia 250 Anniversary. https://www.britannica.com/topic/education/Progressive-education --------- Education In The 20th Century Social and historical background. INTERNATIONAL WARS International wars, together with an intensification of internal stresses and conflicts among social, racial, and ideological groups, characterized the 20th century and HAD PROFOUND EFFECTS ON EDUCATION had profound effects on education. Some of the changes that had far-reaching effects were the rapidly spreading prosperity but widening gaps between rich and poor, an immense increase in world population BUT DECLINING BIRTH RATE but a declining birth rate in Western countries, the growth of large-scale industry and ITS DEPENDENCE ON SCIENCE & TECNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENT its dependence on science and technological advancement, the increasing power of both organized labour and international business, and the enormous influence of both 1.TECHNICAL AND 2.SOCIOPSYCHOLOGICAL ADVANCES IN COMMUNICATION ESPACIALL AS UTILIZED: 1. MASS MEDIAS technical and sociopsychological advances in communication, especially as utilized in mass media. Other pivotal changes included challenges to accepted values, such as those supported by religion; changes in social relations, especially toward versions of group and individual equality; and an explosion of knowledge affecting paradigms as well as particular information. These and other changes marked a century of social and political swings toward a more dynamic and less categorical resolution. The institutional means of handling this uncertain world were to accept more diversity while maintaining basic forms and to rely 1.ON MANAGEMENT EFFICIENCY on management efficiency 2. TO ENSURE PRACTICAL OUTCOMES. to ensure practical outcomes. The two World Wars weakened the military and political might of the larger European powers. Their replacement by “superpowers” whose influence did not depend directly on territorial acquisition and whose ideologies were essentially equalitarian helped to liquidate colonialism. As new independent countries emerged in Africa and Asia and the needs and powers of a “third world” caused a shift IN INTERNATIONAL THINKING in international thinking, EDUCATION WAS SEEN TO BE BOTH education was seen to be both 1. AN INSTRUMENT OF : NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT. an instrument of national development 2. AND A MEANS OF CROSSING 2.1.NATIONAL 2.2.AND CULTURAL BARRIERS. and a means of crossing national and cultural barriers. One consequence of this was a great increase in the quantity of education provided. ATTEMPTS WERE MADE TO 1.ERRADICATE ILLITERACY Attempts were made to eradicate illiteracy, 2 AND COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS 3.WERE BUILD IN EVERYWHERE. and colleges and schools were built everywhere. The growing affluence of masses of the population in high-income areas in North America and Europe brought about, particularly after World War II, A TREMENDOUS DEMAND FOR: 1. SECONDARY. 2. AND HIGHER EDUCATION. a tremendous demand for secondary and higher education. 1.MOST CHILDREN STAYED AT SCHOOL Most children stayed at school until 16, 17, or even 18 years of age, 2. AND A SUBSTANTIAL FRACTION SPENT AT LEAST TWO (2) YEARS AT COLLEGE. and a substantial fraction spent at least two years at college. THE NUMBER OF UNIVERSITIES The number of universities 1. IN MANY COUNTRIES: 1.1.DOUBLED OR TREBLE in many countries doubled or trebled 1.2. BETWEEN: 1950-1970. between 1950 and 1970, 2. AND THE ELABORATION OF: 2.1.TERTIARY LEVEL. 2.2.CONTINUED THEREAFTER. and the elaboration of the tertiary level continued thereafter. This growth was sustained PARTLY BY THE: 1. INDUSTRIAL REQUERIMENTS. 1.1. MODERN SCIENTIFIC TECHNOLOGY... 1.1.1.NEW METHODS. 1.1.2. NEW PROCESSES. 1.1.3. NEW MACHINES. partly by the industrial requirements of modern scientific technology. New methods, processes, and machines were continually introduced. OLD SKILLS BECAME IRRELEVANT... Old skills became irrelevant; new industries sprang up. In addition, the amount of scientific—as distinct from merely technical—knowledge grew continually. 1. RESEARCHERS. 2. SKILLED WORKERS. 3.. HIGH-LEVEL: PROFESSIONALS. Researchers, skilled workers, and high-level professionals 1.WERE INCREASINGLY IN DEMAND. increasingly in demand. 2.THE PROCESSING OF INFORMATION The processing of information underwent revolutionary change. The educational response was mainly to develop technical colleges, TO PROMOTE ADULT 1.EDUCATION to promote adult education 2. AT ALL LEVELS. at all levels, to turn attention 1. TO PART TIME 2. EVENING COURSES to part-time and evening courses, AND PROVIDE: 1. MORE TRAINING 2. MORE EDUCATION. A. WITHIN B. THE INDUSTRIAL : C.ENTERPRISES: THEMSELVES and to provide more training and education within the industrial enterprises themselves. THE ADOPTION OF: 1.MODERN METHODS The adoption of modern methods 2. OF FOOD PRODUCTION. of food production A.DIMINISHED THE NEED FOR: AGRICULTURAL WORKERS. diminished the need for agricultural workers, B.WHO HEADED... 1. FOR THE CITIES. 2. URBANIZATION. who headed for the cities. Urbanization, however, brought problems: city centres decayed, AND THERE WAS A TREND: TOWARD VIOLENCE. and there was a trend toward violence. THE POOREST REMAINED The poorest remained in those centres, 1.AND IT BECAME DIFFICULT and it became difficult 2. TO PROVIDE: ADEQUATE EDUCATION. to provide adequate education. The radical change to large numbers of disrupted families, where THE NORM AS : 1. SINGLE. 2. WORKING PARENT. the norm was a single working parent, affected the urban poor extensively but in all cases raised an expectation of additional school services. Differences in family background, together with the cultural mix partly occasioned by change of immigration patterns, required teaching behaviour and content appropriate to A MORE HETEROGENEOUS SCHOOL POPULATION. a more heterogeneous school population. Major intellectual MOVEMENTS INFLUENCE OF 1.PSYCHOLOGY movements Influence of psychology 2. AND OTHER FIELDS OF : EDUCATION. and other fields on education The attempt to apply scientific method to the study of education dates back to the German philosopher Johann Friedrich HERBART Herbart, who called for the application of psychology TO THE ART OF TEACHING. to the art of teaching. BUT NO UNTIL THE END OF THE 19 CENTURY But not until the end of the 19th century, when the German psychologist Wilhelm Max WUNDT STABLISHED THE FIRST: 1. LABORATORY. 2. UNIVERSITY OF : LEIPZIG (1879) Wundt established the first psychological laboratory at the University of Leipzig in 1879, WERE SERIOUS EFFORTS MADE TO SEPARATE: 1.PSYCHOLOGY. 2. FROM PHILOSOPHY. were serious efforts made to separate psychology from philosophy. WUNDT'S MONUMENTAL Wundt’s monumental PRINCIPLES OF : 1.PHYSIOLOGICAL 2.PSYCHOLOGY Principles of Physiological Psychology (1874) HAD SIGNIFICANT: 1. EFFECTS. 2. ON EDUCATION. IN THE 20TH CENTURY. had significant effects on education in the 20th century. WILLIAM JAMES... 1.OFTEN CONSIDERED 2. THE FATHER OF : AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION William James, often considered the father of American psychology of education, A. BEGAN ABOUT: 1874 began about 1874 B. TO LAY THE : GROUNDWORK to lay the groundwork C. FOR HIS : 1.PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL 2.LABORATORY. for his psychophysiological laboratory, C. WHICH WAS OFFICIALLY: 1. FOUNDED 2.AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY 3.IN 1891. which was officially founded at Harvard University in 1891. WILLIAM JAMES... 1.IN 1878 2.ESTABLISHED In 1878 he established 3. THE FIRST 4. COURSE. 5. IN PSYCHOLOGY the first course in psychology 6. IN THE UNITED STATES. in the United States, 7.and in 1890 he PUBLISCHED HIS FAMOUS THE PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGY published his famous The Principles of Psychology, IN WHICH HE ARGUED: 1. THE PURPOSE . 2. OF EDUCATION. 3. IS TO ORGANIZE. 4. THE CHILD'S POWERS OF: CONDUCT... 4.1. SO AS TO FIT HIM: 4.1.1. TO HIS SOCIAL. 4.1.2. PHYSICAL 1. ENVIRONEMENT. 2. INTERESTS: MUST BE 2.1. AWAKENED 2.2. BROADENED AS THE NATURAL : 1.STARTING POINT OF 2.INSTRUCTION. in which he argued that the purpose of education is to organize the child’s powers of conduct so as to fit him to his social and physical environment. Interests must be awakened and broadened as the natural starting points of instruction. James’s Principles and Talks to Teachers on Psychology cast aside the older notions of psychology in favour of an essentially behaviourist outlook. THEY ASKED THE TEACHERS: 1. TO HELP. 2.. EDUCATED 3. HEROIC INDIVIDUALS :They asked the teacher to help educate heroic individuals 3.1. WHO WOULD PROTECT: 3.2. DARING VISIONS 3.3. OF THE FUTURE. 3.4. AND WORK. 3.5. COURAGEOUSLY. 3.6. TO REALIZE THEM. who would project daring visions of the future and work courageously to realize them. James’s student Edward L. 1.THORNDIKE IS CREDITED Thorndike is credited 2. WITH THE INTRODUCTION 3. MODERN EDUCATIONAL: PSYCHOLOGY. 4. WITH THE PUBLICATION OF: EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY (1903) with the introduction of modern educational psychology, with the publication of Educational Psychology in 1903. THORNDIKE ATTEMPTED 1. TO APPLY. 2.THE METHODS . 3. OF EXACT SCIENCE. 4. TO THE PRACTICE: OF PSYCHOLOGY. Thorndike attempted to apply the methods of exact science to the practice of psychology. James and Thorndike, together WITH THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPER JOHN DEWEY... with the American philosopher John Dewey, 1. HELPED TO CLEAR WAY. helped to clear away 2. MANY OF THE: FANTASTIC NOTIONS. 3. ONCE HELD ABOUT: 3.1. SUCCESSIVE STEPS 3.2. INVOLVED IN THE : DEVELOPMENT OF: 3.2.1. MENTAL FUNCTIONS: 3.2.2. FROM BIRTH TO MATURITY. many of the fantastic notions once held about the successive steps involved in the development of mental functions from birth to maturity. Advertisement Interest in the work of Sigmund Freud and the 1.SPSYCHO-ANALYTIC IMAGE OF THE CHILD 2.IN THE 1920Spsychoanalytic image of the child in the 1920s, 3.AS WELL ATTEMPTS. 4. TO APPLY PSYCHOLOGY as well as attempts to apply psychology 5. TO NATIONAL TRAINING 6. NATIONAL EDUCATION 7. TASKS IN THE 1940's & 1950s: 7.1.STIMULATED 7.2. THE DEVELOPMENT. 7.3 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY. to national training and education tasks in the 1940s and ’50s, stimulated the development of educational psychology, 1. AND THE FIELD. 2. BECAME RECOGNIZED. and the field became recognized 2.1. AS A MAJOR SOURCE: 2.1.1. FOR EDUCATIONAL : THEORY. as a major source for educational theory. EMINENT RESEARCHERS: 1. IN THE FIELD... 2. ADVANCE KNOWLEDGE OF: 2.1. BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION. 2.2. CHILD DEVELOPMENT. 2.3 . CHILD MOTIVATION. Eminent researchers in the field advanced knowledge of behaviour modification, child development, and motivation. THEY STUDIED... 1. LEARNING THEORIES 2. RANGING FROM: A. CLASSICAL B. INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING C. TECHNICAL MODELS: 1. TO SOCIAL THEORIES. 2.OPEN HUMANISTIC: VARIETIES. They studied learning theories ranging from classical and instrumental conditioning and technical models to social theories and open humanistic varieties. BESIDES THE SPECIFIC: APPLICATION OF: 1. MEASUREMENTS. 2. COUNSELING 3. CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY. PSYCHOLOGY CONTRIBUTED ... TO EDUCATION: 1.THROUGHT STUDIES OF: COGNITION. 2. THROUGHT STUDIES OF: INFORMATION PROCCESING. 3. THROUGHT STUDIES OF: TECHNOLOGY OF INSTRUCTION 4. THROUGH STUDIES OF: LEARNING STYLES. ... Besides the specific applications of measurement, counseling, and clinical psychology, psychology contributed to education through studies of cognition, information processing, the technology of instruction, and learning styles. After much controversy about nature versus nurture and about qualitative versus quantitative methods, JUNGIAN : 1.PHENOMENOLOGICAL. 2. ETHOGRAPHICAL METHODS... Jungian, phenomenological, and ethnographic methods TOOK THEIR PLACE: 1. ALONGSIDE: PSYCHOBIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS took their place alongside psychobiological explanations 2. TO HELP EDUCATIONISTS. UNDERSTAND: 2.1. THE PLACE OF HEREDITY 2.2. GENERAL ENVIRONMENT 2.3. AND SHCHOOL, into, across, by VERY COMPLEXES HUMAN BEING PROCESSES: 1. INTEGRAL : HUMAN BEING DEVELOPMENT (from birth to coffin). 2.LEARNING PROCESSES, from pregnacy at death...in nasciturus cases. to help educationists understand the place of heredity, general environment, and school in development and learning. THE INTER DISCIPLINARY & TRANSDISCIPLINARY FIELD & SCIENTIFIC LINKS AS GLOBAL -SYSTEMATIC PRACTICE- MAJOR: EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY (2019): 1. LAB EXPERIMENTS & FIELD RESERCH. 2. BUILD BRIDGES: EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY and other disciplines. 3. BUILD BRIDGES BETWEEN: EDUCATIONAL THEORY and other disciplnes. The relationship between educational theory and other fields of study became increasingly close. SOCIAL SCIENCES 1. HELP TO STUDY: 1.1. INTERACTIONS. 1.2. SPEECH WHAT WAS: A. ACTUALLY B. HAPPENING. C. IN THE CLASSROOM. OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOUR: 1.INDIVIDUALLY. 2. ALL THE CLASS... 3. IN EACH CLASSROOM.. Social science was used to study interactions and speech to discover what was actually happening in a classroom. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE. Philosophy of science 1.led educational theorists 2. to attempt to understand 3.paradigmatic shifts 4. in knowledge. The critical literature of the 1960s and ’70s attacked all institutions as conveyors of the motives and economic interests of the dominant class. Both social philosophy and critical sociology continued to elaborate the themes of social control and oppression as embedded in educational institutions. IN A WORLD OF 1. SOCIAL AND 2. INTELLECTUAL CHANGE... In a world of social as well as intellectual change, there were necessarily new ethical questions—such as those dealing with abortion, biological experimentation, and child rights—which placed new demands on education and required new methods of teaching. TRADITIONAL MOVEMENTS.. Traditional movements Against the various “progressive” lines of 20th-century education, there 1.WERE STRONG VOICES were strong voices 2. ADVOCATING : OLDER TRADITIONS. advocating older traditions. Those voices were particularly strong in the 1930s, in the 1950s, and again in the 1980s and ’90s. Essentialists stressed those human experiences that they believed were indispensable to people of all time periods. They favoured the “mental disciplines” and, in the matter of method and content, put effort above interest, subjects above activities, collective experience above that of the individual, logical organization above the psychological, and the THE TEACHERE'S INITIATIVE ABOVE : THAT OF THE LEARNER. teacher’s initiative above that of the learner. Advertisement Closely related to essentialism was what was called humanistic, or liberal, education in its traditional form. Although many intellectuals argued the case, Robert M. HUTCHINS... Hutchins, president and then chancellor of the University of Chicago from 1929 to 1951, and Mortimer J. ADLER Adler, professor of the philosophy of law at the same institution, were its most recognized proponents. Adler argued for the 1.RESTORATION: ARISTOTELIAN VEIW POINT restoration of an Aristotelian viewpoint in education. Maintaining that there are unchanging verities, he sought a return to education fixed in content and aim. Hutchins denounced 2.AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION 2.1.FOR ITS VOCATIONALISM... American higher education for its vocationalism and 2.2.“ANTI-INTELLECTUALISM,” 2.3. AS WELL AS FOR: IST DELIGHT IN MUUTE. AND : 2.4.ISOLATATED SPECIALIZATION. as well as for its delight in minute and isolated specialization. He and his colleagues 2.5.URGED A RETURNO TO THE: 2.5.1.CULTIVATION. 2.5.2. INTELLECT. urged a return to the cultivation of the intellect. Opposed to the fundamental tenets of pragmatism 1.WAS THE PHILOSOPHY was the philosophy 2. THAT UNDERLAY 3. ALL CATHOLIC EDUCATION. that underlay all Roman Catholic education. Theocentric in its viewpoint, Catholic Scholasticism had God as its unchanging basis of action. It insisted that without such a basis there can be no real aim to any type of living, and hence there can be no real purpose in any system of education. The church’s whole educational aim is to restore the sons of Adam to their high position as children of God. [It insists that] education must prepare man for what he should do here below in order to attain the sublime end for which he was created. (From Pius XI, encyclical on the “Christian Education of Youth,” Dec. 31, 1929.) Everything in education—content, method, discipline—must lead in the direction of humanity’s supernatural destiny. New foundations The three concerns that guided the development of 20th-century education were the child, science, and society. The foundations for this trilogy were laid by so-called progressive education movements supporting child-centred education, scientific-realist education, and social reconstruction. SpaceNext50 Progressive education The progressive education movement was part and parcel of a broader social and political reform called the Progressive movement, which dated to the last decades of the 19th century and the early decades of the 20th. Elementary education had spread throughout the Western world, largely doing away with illiteracy and raising the level of social understanding. Yet, despite this progress, the schools had failed to keep pace with the tremendous social changes that had been going on. Dissatisfaction with existing schools led several educational reformers who wished to put their ideas into practice to establish experimental schools during the last decade of the 19th century and in the early 20th century. The principal experimental schools in America until 1914 were the University of Chicago Laboratory School, founded in 1896 and directed by John Dewey; the Francis W. Parker School, founded in 1901 in Chicago; the School of Organic Education at Fairhope, Ala., founded by Marietta Johnson in 1907; and the experimental elementary school at the University of Missouri (Columbia), founded in 1904 by Junius L. Meriam. The common goal of all was to eliminate the school’s traditional stiffness and to break down hard and fast subject-matter lines. Three main traits characterized these schools: each school adopted an activity program; each school operated on the assumption that education was something that should not be imposed upon the child from the outside but should instead draw forth the latent possibilities from within the child; and each school believed in the democratic concept of individual worth. Dewey, whose writings and lectures influenced educators throughout the world, laid the foundations of a new philosophy that affected the whole structure of education, particularly at the elementary level. His theories were expounded in School and Society (1899), The Child and the Curriculum (1902), and Democracy and Education (1916). For Dewey, philosophy and education render service to each other. Education becomes the laboratory of philosophy. Society should be interpreted to the child through daily living in the classroom, which acts as a miniature society. Education leads to no final end; it is something continuous, “a reconstruction of accumulated experience,” which must be directed toward social efficiency. Education is life, not merely a preparation for life. The influence of progressive education advanced slowly during the first decades of the 20th century. Nevertheless, a number of progressive schools were established, including the Play School and the Walden School in New York City; the Shady Hill School in Cambridge, Mass.; the Elementary School of the University of Iowa; and the Oak Lane Day School in Philadelphia. Helen Parkhurst’s Dalton Plan, introduced in 1920 at Dalton, Mass., pioneered individually paced learning of broad topics. Carleton Washburne’s Winnetka Plan, instituted in 1919 at Winnetka, Ill., viewed learning as a continuous process guided by the child’s own goals and capabilities. The Gary Plan, developed in 1908 at Gary, Ind., by William Wirt, established a “complete school,” embracing work, study, and play for all grades on a full-year basis. The spread of progressive education became more rapid from the 1920s on and was not confined to any particular country. In the United States the Progressive Education Association (PEA) was formed in 1919. The PEA did much to further the cause of progressive education until it ended, as an organization, in 1955. In 1921 Europe’s leading progressives formed the New Education Fellowship, later renamed the World Education Fellowship. The notions expressed by progressive education influenced public school systems everywhere. Some of the movement’s lasting effects were seen in activity programs, imaginative writing and reading classes, projects linked to the community, flexible classroom space, dramatics and informal activities, discovery methods of learning, self-assessment systems, and programs for the development of citizenship and responsibility. CHILD -CENTERED EDUCATION. Child-centred education Proponents of the child-centred approach to education typically argued that the school 1.SHOULD BE FITTED. 2. TO THE NEEDS OF THE CHILD. should be fitted to the needs of the child and not the child to the school. THESE IDEAS FIRST: 1. EXPLORE IN EUROPE. These ideas, first explored in Europe, 1.1. NOTABLY... notably in Jean-Jacques EL EMILIO DE ROUSSEAU Rousseau’s Émile (1762) MUCHO ANTES DEL ANO :1800. and in Johann Heinrich 1.2.PESTALOZZI (1801)... Pestalozzi’s COMO ENSENA GERTRUDE: A SUS NINOS & NINAS? How Gertrude Teaches Her Children (1801), AMBOS INTRODUCIDOS: 1. AL SISTEMA EDUCATIVO -NORTEAMERICANO- 2. POR SUS PIONEROS 2.1. EN INNOVACION EDUCATIVA. 2.2.ECONOMIA NARANJA O ECONOMA CREATIVA, -en aquel pais...- were implemented in American systems by pioneering educators such as Francis W. PARKER (1875)... 1. COMO LO LOGRO PARKER EN 1875? 1.1. PORQUE ERA : empleado publico. 1.2. PORQUE TENIA: 1.2.1. UN CONTRATO DE TRABAJO: COMO FUNCIONARIO PUBLICO, EN EL ESTADO NORTEAMERICANO. 1.2.2.PERO N O EN EL MINISTERIO DE ENERGIA Y MINAS, NI EN E MINISTERIO DE ECONOMIA, EN EL MINISTERIO DE INDUSTRIA & COMERCIO, NI EN LA JUNTA MONETARIA DEL BANCO CENTRAL 1.2.3. SINO EN EL : MINISTERIO -ESPECIALIZADO EN: PERSONAS, INFANTES, ESCOLARES, EN SERES VIVOS, SERES HUMANOS: EN APRENDICES INFANTILES-- DONDE LOS CIENTIFICOS & LAS CIENTIFICAS SE ESPECIALIZAN EN : 1.BIOGRAFIAS INFANTILES, 2.TRAYECTORIAS: ESCOLARES INFANTILES... DONDE SE CONVERSA -24 horas del dia, los 365 dias de ano- SOBRE: 1. KINDER, 2.PRIMARA, 3.BACHILLERATO, para ninos y ninas, en todas partes del mundo.... PARKER FUE CONTRATADO O NOMBRADO EN 1875: 1.NO PRESIDENTE DE LA REPUBLICA. 2. NO SENADOR. 3. NO DIPUTADO... SINO: 1. EMPLEADO PUBLICO, en la burocracia profesional de EEUU... 2. UN PUESTO PUBLICO : HUMILDE 3. EN UN PEDACITO DE EL 3.1.GIGANTESCO MAPA NORTEAMERICANO, 3.2.DE LA GIGANTESCA GEOGRAFIA NORTEAMERICANA: 3.3.SUPERINTENDENTE: ESCOLAR... 3.4. CONDADO DE QUINCY, MASS. Parker. Parker became superintendent of schools in Quincy, Mass., in 1875. He assailed the mechanical, assembly-line methods of traditional schools and stressed “QUALITY TEACHING” by which he meant STRATEGIES SUCH AS ACTIVITY strategies such as activity, 1. EXPRESION : -AUTO-CREATIVA, INNOVADORA- DEL TALENTO INFANTIL 2. LAS EXCURSIONES -ESCOLARES- INFANTILES creative self-expression, excursions, PROCURANDO EN ESOS NUEVOS ESPACIOS - DE LIBERTAD INFANTIL DEL NINO & DE LA NINA- UNA APROXIMACION SISTEMATICA 1. A LA COMPRENSION DE LA VISION DEL DESARROLLO INTEGRAL U HOLISTICO DEL NINO Y D E LA NINA desde: los quehaceres 1. corruciculares. 2. extra-curriculares. understanding the individual, and the development of personality. Francis Parker Francis Parker Courtesy of Chicago History Museum. A different approach to child-centred education arose as a result of the 1.STUDY 2.AND CARE 3.OF THE PHYSICALLY 4.AND MENTALLY HANDICAPED study and care of the physically and mentally handicapped. Teachers 1.HAD TO INVENT 2. THEIR OWN METHODS. had to invent their own methods 3. TO MMET THE NEEDS 4.OF SUCH CHILDREN to meet the needs of such children, because the ordinary schools did not supply them. 1.WHEN THESE METHODS 1.1. PROVED SUCCSSFUL When these methods proved successful with handicapped children, there arose the question of whether they might not yield even 2. BETTER RESULTS 2.1.WITH NON HANDICAPED 2.2.CHILDREN better results with nonhandicapped children. During the first decade of the 20th century, 1. THE EDUCATIONIST 1.1. MARIA MONTESSORI 1.2. OF ROME the educationists Maria Montessori of Rome and 1.OVIDE DECROLY 2.OF BRUSSELS. .Ovide Decroly of Brussels both SUCCESSFULLY : 1. APPLIED 2. THEIR EDUCATIONAL INVENTIONS. successfully applied their educational inventions in schools for ordinary boys and girls. The Montessori method’s underlying assumption was the child’s NEED TO ESCAPE FROM: 1. THE DOMINATION OF PARENT. 2. DOMINATION OF TEACHER .need to escape from the domination of parent and teacher. According to Montessori, children, who are the unhappy victims of adult suppression, have been compelled to adopt defensive measures foreign to their real nature in the struggle to hold their own. The first move toward the reform of education, therefore, should be directed toward educators: to enlighten their consciences, to remove their perceptions of superiority, and to make them humble and passive in their attitudes toward the young. The next move should be to provide a new environment in which the child has a chance to live a life of his own. In the Montessori method, the senses are separately trained by means of apparatuses calculated to enlist spontaneous interest at the successive stages of mental growth. By similar self-educative devices, the child is led to individual mastery of the basic skills of everyday life and then to schoolwork in arithmetic and grammar. The Decroly method was essentially a program of work based on centres of interest and educative games. 1.CENTER OF INTERESTS 2.EDUCATIONAL GAMES. Its basic feature was the workshop-classroom, in which children freely went about their own occupations. Behind the complex of individual activities was a carefully organized scheme of work based on an analysis of the fundamental needs of the child. The principle of giving priority to wholes rather than to parts was emphasized in teaching children to read, write, and count, and care was taken to reach a comprehensive view of the experiences of life. The Montessori and the Decroly methods spread throughout the world and widely influenced attitudes and practices of educating young children. Pestalozzian principles also 1.ENCOURAGED 1.1.INTRODUCTION: 1.2.MUSIC EDUCATIN 1.3.INTO EARLY CHILDHOOD encouraged the introduction of music education into early childhood programs. Research showed that music has an undeniable effect on the development of the young child, especially in such areas as movement, temper, and speech and listening patterns. The four most common methods of early childhood music education were those developed by Émile Jaques-Dalcroze, Carl Orff, and Zoltán Kodály, as well as the Comprehensive Musicianship approach. The Dalcroze method emphasized movement; Orff, dramatization; Kodály, singing games; and Comprehensive Musicianship, exploration and discovery. Another popular method, developed by the Japanese violinist Shinichi Suzuki, was based on the theory that young children learn music in the same way that they learn their first language. Scientific-realist education THE SCIENTIFIC : REALISTIC EDUCATION. -UNIV.LAB, GENEVA:1900- The scientific-realist education movement began in 1900 when Édouard Claparède, then a doctor at the Psychological Laboratory of the University of Geneva, responded to an appeal from the women in charge of special schools for “backward” and “abnormal” children in Geneva. The experience allowed him to realize some of the defects of ordinary schools. Not as much thought was given, he argued, to the minds of children as was given to their feet. Their shoes were of different sizes and shapes, made to fit their feet. When would there be schools to measure? The psychological principles needed to adapt education to individual children were expounded in his Psychologie de l’enfant et pédagogie experimentale (1905; Experimental Pedagogy and the Psychology of the Child). Later Claparède took a leading part in the creation of the J.-J. Rousseau Institute in Geneva, a school of educational sciences to which came students from all over the world. Theorists such as Claparède hoped to provide a scientific basis for education, an aim that was furthered by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget, who studied in a philosophical and psychological manner the intellectual development of children. Piaget argued, on the basis of his observations, that development of intelligence exhibits four chief stages and that the sequence is everywhere the same, although the ages in the stages of development may vary from culture to culture. The first stage takes place during infancy, when children, even before they learn to speak, put objects together (addition) and then separate them (subtraction), perceiving them as collections, rings, networks, and groups. By the age of two or three, a basis has been laid. The children have developed kinetic muscular intelligence to some degree—they can think with their fingers, their hands, and their bodies. Aided by language, the capacity for symbolic thinking slowly develops, constituting the second stage. Up to the age of seven or eight, some of the fundamental categories of adult thinking are still absent; there is seldom any notion, for instance, of cause-and-effect relationships. The third stage is that of concrete operation. The child has begun to know how to deal with mental symbols and acquires abstract notions, such as “responsibility.” But the child operates only when in the presence of concrete objects that can be manipulated. Pure abstract thinking is still too difficult. Teaching at this stage must be exceedingly concrete and active; purely verbal teaching is out of place. Only after about 12 years of age, with the onset of adolescence, do children develop the power to deal with formal mental operations not immediately attached to objects. Only then do theories begin to acquire real significance, and only then can purely verbal teaching be used. The child’s total development, particularly emotional and social growth, also concerned educational reformers. They pointed out the error in assuming that incentives to mental effort are the same for adults and children. The English philosopher Alfred North Whitehead, in his doctrine of the “Cycle of Interests,” put forward a theory in line with the ideas of the reformers. Romance, precision, and generalization, said Whitehead, are the stages through which, rhythmically, mental growth proceeds. Education should consist in a continual repetition of such cycles. Each lesson in a minor way should form an eddy cycle issuing in its own subordinate process. Whitehead believed that any scheme of education must be judged by the extent to which it stimulates a child to think. From the beginning of education, children should 1.EXPERIENCE... 2.THE JOY OF DISCOVERY experience the joy of discovery.

EDUCATION IN THE

20 TH CENTURY:

Social & Historical Background.

Source:

Britannica Encyclopledia

250 Anniversary.

https://www.britannica.com/topic/education/Progressive-education

---------


Education In The 20th Century

Social and historical background.

INTERNATIONAL WARS

International wars, together with an intensification of internal stresses and conflicts among social, racial, and ideological groups,
characterized the 20th century and

HAD PROFOUND EFFECTS

ON EDUCATION

had profound effects on education.

Some of the changes that had far-reaching effects were the rapidly spreading prosperity but widening gaps between rich and poor, an immense increase in world population

BUT DECLINING BIRTH RATE

but a declining birth rate in Western countries, the growth of large-scale industry and

ITS DEPENDENCE ON SCIENCE

 & TECNOLOGICAL

ADVANCEMENT

 its dependence on science and technological advancement, the increasing power of both organized labour and international business, and the enormous influence of both


1.TECHNICAL AND

2.SOCIOPSYCHOLOGICAL

ADVANCES IN COMMUNICATION

ESPACIALL AS UTILIZED:

1. MASS MEDIAS

technical and sociopsychological advances in communication, especially as utilized in mass media. Other pivotal changes included challenges to accepted values, such as those supported by religion; changes in social relations, especially toward versions of group and individual equality; and an explosion of knowledge affecting paradigms as well as particular information.

These and other changes marked a century of social and political swings toward a more dynamic and less categorical resolution.

The institutional means of handling this uncertain world were to accept more diversity while maintaining basic forms and to rely


1.ON MANAGEMENT EFFICIENCY

on management efficiency

2. TO ENSURE PRACTICAL

OUTCOMES.

 to ensure practical outcomes.

The two World Wars weakened the military and political might of the larger European powers. Their replacement by “superpowers” whose influence did not depend directly on territorial acquisition and whose ideologies were essentially equalitarian helped to liquidate colonialism.

As new independent countries emerged in Africa and Asia and the needs and powers of a “third world” caused a shift

IN INTERNATIONAL THINKING

in international thinking,

EDUCATION WAS SEEN

TO BE BOTH

education was seen to be both

1. AN INSTRUMENT OF :

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT.

an instrument of national development

2. AND A MEANS OF CROSSING

2.1.NATIONAL

2.2.AND CULTURAL BARRIERS.

and a means of crossing national and cultural barriers. One consequence of this was a great increase in the quantity of education provided.

ATTEMPTS WERE MADE TO

1.ERRADICATE ILLITERACY

Attempts were made to eradicate illiteracy,

2  AND COLLEGES AND

SCHOOLS

3.WERE BUILD

IN EVERYWHERE.

and colleges and schools were built everywhere.

The growing affluence of masses of the population in high-income areas in North America and Europe brought about, particularly after World War II,

A TREMENDOUS DEMAND

FOR:

1. SECONDARY.

2. AND HIGHER EDUCATION.

a tremendous demand for secondary and higher education.

1.MOST CHILDREN

 STAYED AT SCHOOL

Most children stayed at school until 16, 17, or even 18 years of age,

2. AND A SUBSTANTIAL

FRACTION SPENT

AT LEAST

TWO (2) YEARS AT COLLEGE.

and a substantial fraction spent at least two years at college.

THE NUMBER OF UNIVERSITIES

The number of universities

1. IN MANY COUNTRIES:

1.1.DOUBLED OR TREBLE

in many countries doubled or trebled

1.2. BETWEEN:

1950-1970.

between 1950 and 1970,

2. AND THE ELABORATION OF:

2.1.TERTIARY LEVEL.

2.2.CONTINUED

THEREAFTER.

and the elaboration of the tertiary level continued thereafter.


This growth was sustained

PARTLY BY THE:

1. INDUSTRIAL

REQUERIMENTS.

1.1. MODERN SCIENTIFIC

TECHNOLOGY...

1.1.1.NEW METHODS.

1.1.2. NEW PROCESSES.

1.1.3. NEW MACHINES.

partly by the industrial requirements of modern scientific technology. New methods, processes, and machines were continually introduced.

OLD SKILLS BECAME

IRRELEVANT...


Old skills became irrelevant; new industries sprang up. In addition, the amount of scientific—as distinct from merely technical—knowledge grew continually.

1. RESEARCHERS.

2. SKILLED WORKERS.

3.. HIGH-LEVEL:

 PROFESSIONALS.

Researchers, skilled workers, and high-level professionals

1.WERE INCREASINGLY IN

DEMAND.

 increasingly in demand.

2.THE PROCESSING

OF INFORMATION

The processing of information underwent revolutionary change.

The educational response was mainly to develop technical colleges,

TO PROMOTE ADULT

1.EDUCATION

to promote adult education

2. AT ALL LEVELS.

at all levels, to turn attention

1. TO PART TIME

2. EVENING COURSES

 to part-time and evening courses,

AND PROVIDE:

1. MORE TRAINING

2. MORE EDUCATION.

A. WITHIN

B. THE INDUSTRIAL :

C.ENTERPRISES:

 THEMSELVES

and to provide more training and education within the industrial enterprises themselves.

THE ADOPTION OF:

 1.MODERN METHODS

The adoption of modern methods

2. OF FOOD PRODUCTION.

of food production

A.DIMINISHED THE NEED FOR:

AGRICULTURAL WORKERS.

diminished the need for agricultural workers,

B.WHO HEADED...

1. FOR THE CITIES.

2. URBANIZATION.

who headed for the cities. Urbanization, however, brought problems: city centres decayed,

AND THERE WAS A TREND:

TOWARD VIOLENCE.

and there was a trend toward violence.


THE POOREST REMAINED

The poorest remained in those centres,

1.AND IT BECAME DIFFICULT

and it became difficult

2. TO PROVIDE:

 ADEQUATE EDUCATION.

 to provide adequate education.


The radical change to large numbers of disrupted families, where

THE NORM AS :

1. SINGLE.

2. WORKING PARENT.

the norm was a single working parent, affected the urban poor extensively but in all cases raised an expectation of additional school services. Differences in family background, together with the cultural mix partly occasioned by change of immigration patterns, required teaching behaviour and content appropriate to

A MORE HETEROGENEOUS

SCHOOL POPULATION.

a more heterogeneous school population.

Major intellectual

MOVEMENTS INFLUENCE OF

1.PSYCHOLOGY

movements
Influence of psychology

2. AND OTHER FIELDS OF :

EDUCATION.

 and other fields on education
The attempt to apply scientific method to the study of education dates back to the German philosopher

Johann Friedrich HERBART

Herbart, who called for the application of psychology

TO THE ART OF TEACHING.

to the art of teaching.

BUT NO UNTIL THE END

OF THE 19 CENTURY

But not until the end of the 19th century, when the German psychologist Wilhelm Max

WUNDT

STABLISHED THE FIRST:

1. LABORATORY.

2. UNIVERSITY OF :

LEIPZIG (1879)


Wundt established the first psychological laboratory at the University of Leipzig in 1879,

WERE SERIOUS EFFORTS

MADE TO SEPARATE:

1.PSYCHOLOGY.

2. FROM PHILOSOPHY.

were serious efforts made to separate psychology from philosophy.


WUNDT'S MONUMENTAL

Wundt’s monumental

PRINCIPLES OF :

1.PHYSIOLOGICAL

2.PSYCHOLOGY

Principles of Physiological Psychology (1874)

HAD SIGNIFICANT:

1. EFFECTS.

2. ON EDUCATION.

IN THE 20TH CENTURY.

had significant effects on education in the 20th century.

WILLIAM JAMES...

1.OFTEN CONSIDERED

2. THE FATHER OF :

AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGY

OF EDUCATION

William James, often considered the father of American psychology of education,


A. BEGAN ABOUT:

1874

began about 1874

B. TO LAY THE :

GROUNDWORK

 to lay the groundwork

C. FOR HIS :

1.PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL

2.LABORATORY.

for his psychophysiological laboratory,

C. WHICH WAS OFFICIALLY:

1. FOUNDED

2.AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY

3.IN 1891.

which was officially founded at Harvard University in 1891.

WILLIAM JAMES...

1.IN 1878

2.ESTABLISHED

 In 1878 he established

3. THE FIRST

4. COURSE.

5. IN PSYCHOLOGY

 the first course in psychology

6. IN THE UNITED STATES.

 in the United States,

7.and in 1890 he

PUBLISCHED HIS FAMOUS

THE PRINCIPLES

OF PSYCHOLOGY

published his famous The Principles of Psychology,

IN WHICH HE ARGUED:

1. THE PURPOSE .

2. OF EDUCATION.

3. IS TO ORGANIZE.

4. THE CHILD'S POWERS OF:

CONDUCT...

4.1. SO AS TO FIT HIM:

4.1.1. TO HIS SOCIAL.

4.1.2. PHYSICAL

1. ENVIRONEMENT.

2. INTERESTS: MUST BE

2.1. AWAKENED

2.2. BROADENED

AS THE NATURAL :

1.STARTING POINT OF

2.INSTRUCTION.

in which he argued that the purpose of education is to organize the child’s powers of conduct so as to fit him to his social and physical environment. Interests must be awakened and broadened as the natural starting points of instruction. James’s Principles and Talks to Teachers on Psychology cast aside the older notions of psychology in favour of an essentially behaviourist outlook.

THEY ASKED THE TEACHERS:

1. TO HELP.

2.. EDUCATED

3. HEROIC INDIVIDUALS

:They asked the teacher to help educate heroic individuals

3.1. WHO WOULD PROTECT:

3.2. DARING VISIONS

3.3. OF THE FUTURE.

3.4. AND WORK.

3.5. COURAGEOUSLY.

3.6. TO REALIZE THEM.

who would project daring visions of the future and work courageously to realize them.

James’s student Edward L.

1.THORNDIKE IS CREDITED

Thorndike is credited

2. WITH THE INTRODUCTION

3. MODERN EDUCATIONAL:

PSYCHOLOGY.

4. WITH THE PUBLICATION OF:

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

(1903)

with the introduction of modern educational psychology, with the publication of Educational Psychology in 1903.

THORNDIKE ATTEMPTED

1. TO APPLY.

2.THE METHODS .

3. OF EXACT SCIENCE.

4. TO THE PRACTICE:

OF PSYCHOLOGY.

Thorndike attempted to apply the methods of exact science to the practice of psychology. James and Thorndike, together


WITH THE AMERICAN

PHILOSOPER

JOHN DEWEY...

with the American philosopher John Dewey,

1. HELPED TO CLEAR WAY.

helped to clear away

2. MANY OF THE:

 FANTASTIC NOTIONS.

3. ONCE HELD ABOUT:

3.1. SUCCESSIVE STEPS

3.2. INVOLVED IN THE :

DEVELOPMENT OF:

3.2.1. MENTAL FUNCTIONS:

3.2.2. FROM BIRTH TO

MATURITY.


many of the fantastic notions once held about the successive steps involved in the development of mental functions from birth to maturity.

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Interest in the work of Sigmund Freud and the

1.SPSYCHO-ANALYTIC

IMAGE OF THE CHILD

2.IN THE 1920Spsychoanalytic image of the child in the 1920s,

3.AS WELL ATTEMPTS.

4. TO APPLY PSYCHOLOGY

as well as attempts to apply psychology

5. TO NATIONAL TRAINING

6. NATIONAL EDUCATION

7. TASKS IN THE 1940's

& 1950s:

7.1.STIMULATED

7.2. THE DEVELOPMENT.

7.3 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY.

to national training and education tasks in the 1940s and ’50s, stimulated the development of educational psychology,

1. AND THE FIELD.

2. BECAME RECOGNIZED.

and the field became recognized

2.1. AS A MAJOR SOURCE:

2.1.1. FOR EDUCATIONAL :

THEORY.

 as a major source for educational theory.

EMINENT RESEARCHERS:

1. IN THE FIELD...

2. ADVANCE KNOWLEDGE OF:

2.1. BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION.

2.2. CHILD DEVELOPMENT.

2.3 . CHILD MOTIVATION.

Eminent researchers in the field advanced knowledge of behaviour modification, child development, and motivation.

THEY STUDIED...

1. LEARNING THEORIES

2. RANGING FROM:

A. CLASSICAL

B. INSTRUMENTAL

CONDITIONING

C. TECHNICAL MODELS:

1. TO SOCIAL THEORIES.

2.OPEN HUMANISTIC:

VARIETIES.

 They studied learning theories ranging from classical and instrumental conditioning and technical models to social theories and open humanistic varieties.

BESIDES THE SPECIFIC:

 APPLICATION OF:

1. MEASUREMENTS.

2. COUNSELING

3. CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY.

PSYCHOLOGY CONTRIBUTED ...

TO EDUCATION:

1.THROUGHT STUDIES OF:

COGNITION.

2. THROUGHT STUDIES OF:

INFORMATION PROCCESING.

3. THROUGHT STUDIES OF:

TECHNOLOGY OF INSTRUCTION

4. THROUGH STUDIES OF:

LEARNING STYLES.

... Besides the specific applications of measurement, counseling, and clinical psychology, psychology contributed to education through studies of cognition, information processing, the technology of instruction, and learning styles. After much controversy about nature versus nurture and about qualitative versus quantitative methods,

JUNGIAN :

1.PHENOMENOLOGICAL.

2. ETHOGRAPHICAL METHODS...


Jungian, phenomenological, and ethnographic methods


TOOK THEIR PLACE:

1. ALONGSIDE:

PSYCHOBIOLOGICAL

EXPLANATIONS

 took their place alongside psychobiological explanations

2. TO HELP EDUCATIONISTS.

UNDERSTAND:

2.1. THE PLACE OF HEREDITY

2.2. GENERAL ENVIRONMENT

2.3. AND SHCHOOL, into, across,

by VERY COMPLEXES

HUMAN BEING PROCESSES:

1. INTEGRAL :

HUMAN BEING DEVELOPMENT

(from birth to coffin).

2.LEARNING PROCESSES,

from pregnacy at death...in

nasciturus cases.

 to help educationists understand the place of heredity, general environment, and school in development and learning.

THE INTER DISCIPLINARY

 & TRANSDISCIPLINARY

FIELD & SCIENTIFIC LINKS

AS GLOBAL

-SYSTEMATIC PRACTICE-

MAJOR:

EDUCATIONAL

PSYCHOLOGY (2019):

1. LAB EXPERIMENTS

 & FIELD RESERCH.

2. BUILD BRIDGES:

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

and other disciplines.

3. BUILD BRIDGES BETWEEN:

EDUCATIONAL THEORY

 and other disciplnes.

The relationship between educational theory and other fields of study became increasingly close.

SOCIAL SCIENCES

1. HELP TO STUDY:

1.1. INTERACTIONS.

1.2. SPEECH WHAT WAS:

A. ACTUALLY

B. HAPPENING.

C. IN THE CLASSROOM.

OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOUR:

1.INDIVIDUALLY.

2. ALL THE CLASS...

3. IN EACH CLASSROOM..


Social science was used to study interactions and speech to discover what was actually happening in a classroom.


PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE.

Philosophy of science

1.led educational theorists

2. to attempt to understand

3.paradigmatic shifts

4. in knowledge.


The critical literature of the 1960s and ’70s attacked all institutions as conveyors of the motives and economic interests of the dominant class. Both social philosophy and critical sociology continued to elaborate the themes of social control and oppression as embedded in educational institutions.

IN A WORLD OF

1. SOCIAL AND

2. INTELLECTUAL CHANGE... In a world of social as well as intellectual change, there were necessarily new ethical questions—such as those dealing with abortion, biological experimentation, and child rights—which placed new demands on education and required new methods of teaching.


TRADITIONAL MOVEMENTS..



Traditional movements
Against the various “progressive” lines of 20th-century education, there

1.WERE STRONG VOICES

were strong voices

2. ADVOCATING :

OLDER TRADITIONS.

advocating older traditions.

Those voices were particularly strong in the 1930s, in the 1950s, and again in the 1980s and ’90s.

Essentialists stressed those human experiences that they believed were indispensable to people of all time periods.

They favoured the “mental disciplines” and, in the matter of method and content, put effort above interest, subjects above activities, collective experience above that of the individual, logical organization above the psychological, and the

THE TEACHERE'S INITIATIVE

ABOVE :

THAT  OF THE LEARNER.

 teacher’s initiative above that of the learner.

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Closely related to essentialism was what was called humanistic, or liberal, education in its traditional form. Although many intellectuals argued the case,


Robert M. HUTCHINS...

Hutchins, president and then chancellor of the University of Chicago from 1929 to 1951,

and Mortimer J. ADLER

Adler, professor of the philosophy of law at the same institution, were its most recognized proponents.

Adler argued for the

1.RESTORATION:

 ARISTOTELIAN VEIW POINT

restoration of an Aristotelian viewpoint in education. Maintaining that there are unchanging verities, he sought a return to education fixed in content and aim.

Hutchins denounced

2.AMERICAN HIGHER

EDUCATION

2.1.FOR ITS VOCATIONALISM...

American higher education for its vocationalism and

2.2.“ANTI-INTELLECTUALISM,”

2.3. AS WELL AS FOR:

 IST DELIGHT IN MUUTE.

AND :

2.4.ISOLATATED

SPECIALIZATION.

as well as for its delight in minute and isolated specialization. He and his colleagues

2.5.URGED

A RETURNO TO THE:

2.5.1.CULTIVATION.

2.5.2. INTELLECT.

urged a return to the cultivation of the intellect.

Opposed to the fundamental tenets of pragmatism

1.WAS THE PHILOSOPHY

was the philosophy

2. THAT UNDERLAY

3. ALL CATHOLIC EDUCATION.

that underlay all Roman Catholic education. Theocentric in its viewpoint, Catholic Scholasticism had God as its unchanging basis of action. It insisted that without such a basis there can be no real aim to any type of living, and hence there can be no real purpose in any system of education. The church’s

whole educational aim is to restore the sons of Adam to their high position as children of God. [It insists that] education must prepare man for what he should do here below in order to attain the sublime end for which he was created. (From Pius XI, encyclical on the “Christian Education of Youth,” Dec. 31, 1929.)

Everything in education—content, method, discipline—must lead in the direction of humanity’s supernatural destiny.

New foundations
The three concerns that guided the development of 20th-century education were the child, science, and society. The foundations for this trilogy were laid by so-called progressive education movements supporting child-centred education, scientific-realist education, and social reconstruction.

SpaceNext50



Progressive education
The progressive education movement was part and parcel of a broader social and political reform called the Progressive movement, which dated to the last decades of the 19th century and the early decades of the 20th. Elementary education had spread throughout the Western world, largely doing away with illiteracy and raising the level of social understanding. Yet, despite this progress, the schools had failed to keep pace with the tremendous social changes that had been going on.

Dissatisfaction with existing schools led several educational reformers who wished to put their ideas into practice to establish experimental schools during the last decade of the 19th century and in the early 20th century. The principal experimental schools in America until 1914 were the University of Chicago Laboratory School, founded in 1896 and directed by John Dewey; the Francis W. Parker School, founded in 1901 in Chicago; the School of Organic Education at Fairhope, Ala., founded by Marietta Johnson in 1907; and the experimental elementary school at the University of Missouri (Columbia), founded in 1904 by Junius L. Meriam. The common goal of all was to eliminate the school’s traditional stiffness and to break down hard and fast subject-matter lines. Three main traits characterized these schools: each school adopted an activity program; each school operated on the assumption that education was something that should not be imposed upon the child from the outside but should instead draw forth the latent possibilities from within the child; and each school believed in the democratic concept of individual worth.

Dewey, whose writings and lectures influenced educators throughout the world, laid the foundations of a new philosophy that affected the whole structure of education, particularly at the elementary level. His theories were expounded in School and Society (1899), The Child and the Curriculum (1902), and Democracy and Education (1916). For Dewey, philosophy and education render service to each other. Education becomes the laboratory of philosophy. Society should be interpreted to the child through daily living in the classroom, which acts as a miniature society. Education leads to no final end; it is something continuous, “a reconstruction of accumulated experience,” which must be directed toward social efficiency. Education is life, not merely a preparation for life.


The influence of progressive education advanced slowly during the first decades of the 20th century. Nevertheless, a number of progressive schools were established, including the Play School and the Walden School in New York City; the Shady Hill School in Cambridge, Mass.; the Elementary School of the University of Iowa; and the Oak Lane Day School in Philadelphia. Helen Parkhurst’s Dalton Plan, introduced in 1920 at Dalton, Mass., pioneered individually paced learning of broad topics. Carleton Washburne’s Winnetka Plan, instituted in 1919 at Winnetka, Ill., viewed learning as a continuous process guided by the child’s own goals and capabilities. The Gary Plan, developed in 1908 at Gary, Ind., by William Wirt, established a “complete school,” embracing work, study, and play for all grades on a full-year basis.

The spread of progressive education became more rapid from the 1920s on and was not confined to any particular country. In the United States the Progressive Education Association (PEA) was formed in 1919. The PEA did much to further the cause of progressive education until it ended, as an organization, in 1955. In 1921 Europe’s leading progressives formed the New Education Fellowship, later renamed the World Education Fellowship.


The notions expressed by progressive education influenced public school systems everywhere. Some of the movement’s lasting effects were seen in activity programs, imaginative writing and reading classes, projects linked to the community, flexible classroom space, dramatics and informal activities, discovery methods of learning, self-assessment systems, and programs for the development of citizenship and responsibility.

CHILD -CENTERED EDUCATION.

Child-centred education
Proponents of the child-centred approach to education typically argued that the school

1.SHOULD BE FITTED.

2. TO THE NEEDS OF

THE CHILD.



should be fitted to the needs of the child and not the child to the school.



THESE IDEAS FIRST:

1. EXPLORE IN EUROPE.

These ideas, first explored in Europe,

1.1. NOTABLY...

notably in Jean-Jacques


EL EMILIO DE ROUSSEAU

Rousseau’s Émile (1762)

MUCHO ANTES DEL ANO :1800.

and in Johann Heinrich


1.2.PESTALOZZI (1801)...

Pestalozzi’s

COMO ENSENA GERTRUDE:

 A SUS NINOS & NINAS?

How Gertrude Teaches

Her Children (1801),


AMBOS INTRODUCIDOS:

1. AL SISTEMA EDUCATIVO

 -NORTEAMERICANO-

2. POR SUS PIONEROS

2.1. EN INNOVACION EDUCATIVA.

2.2.ECONOMIA NARANJA

O ECONOMA CREATIVA,

-en aquel pais...-

were implemented in American systems by pioneering educators such as Francis W.

PARKER (1875)...

1. COMO LO LOGRO

PARKER EN 1875?

1.1. PORQUE ERA :

empleado publico.

1.2. PORQUE TENIA:

1.2.1. UN CONTRATO

DE TRABAJO:

COMO FUNCIONARIO

PUBLICO, EN EL ESTADO

NORTEAMERICANO.

1.2.2.PERO N O EN EL

MINISTERIO DE ENERGIA

Y MINAS,

NI EN E MINISTERIO DE ECONOMIA,

EN EL MINISTERIO DE INDUSTRIA & COMERCIO,

NI EN LA JUNTA MONETARIA DEL BANCO CENTRAL

1.2.3. SINO EN EL :

MINISTERIO

-ESPECIALIZADO EN:

 PERSONAS, INFANTES,

 ESCOLARES,

EN SERES VIVOS,

SERES HUMANOS:

EN APRENDICES INFANTILES--

DONDE LOS CIENTIFICOS

& LAS CIENTIFICAS

SE ESPECIALIZAN EN :

1.BIOGRAFIAS INFANTILES,

2.TRAYECTORIAS:

 ESCOLARES INFANTILES...

DONDE SE CONVERSA

-24 horas del dia,

 los 365 dias de ano-

SOBRE:

1. KINDER,

2.PRIMARA,

3.BACHILLERATO,

para ninos y ninas,

 en todas partes del mundo....


PARKER FUE CONTRATADO

O NOMBRADO EN 1875:

1.NO PRESIDENTE

DE LA REPUBLICA.

2. NO SENADOR.

3. NO DIPUTADO...

SINO:

1. EMPLEADO PUBLICO,

 en la burocracia profesional

de EEUU...

2. UN PUESTO PUBLICO :

HUMILDE

3. EN UN PEDACITO

DE EL

3.1.GIGANTESCO MAPA

NORTEAMERICANO,

3.2.DE LA GIGANTESCA

GEOGRAFIA NORTEAMERICANA:


3.3.SUPERINTENDENTE:

ESCOLAR...

3.4. CONDADO DE QUINCY,

MASS.

Parker. Parker became superintendent of schools in Quincy, Mass., in 1875.

He assailed the mechanical, assembly-line methods of traditional schools and stressed

“QUALITY TEACHING” by which he meant

STRATEGIES SUCH AS ACTIVITY

strategies such as activity,

1. EXPRESION :

-AUTO-CREATIVA, INNOVADORA-

DEL TALENTO INFANTIL

2. LAS EXCURSIONES


-ESCOLARES-

INFANTILES

creative self-expression, excursions,

PROCURANDO

EN ESOS NUEVOS ESPACIOS

- DE LIBERTAD INFANTIL

 DEL NINO & DE LA NINA-

UNA APROXIMACION

SISTEMATICA

1. A LA COMPRENSION

 DE LA VISION

DEL DESARROLLO INTEGRAL

U HOLISTICO DEL NINO

Y D E LA NINA desde:

 los quehaceres


1. corruciculares.

2. extra-curriculares.

understanding the individual, and the development of personality.

Francis Parker
Francis Parker
Courtesy of Chicago History Museum.


A different approach to child-centred education arose as a result of the

1.STUDY

2.AND CARE

3.OF THE PHYSICALLY

4.AND MENTALLY HANDICAPED

study and care of the physically and mentally handicapped.

Teachers

1.HAD TO INVENT

2. THEIR OWN METHODS.

had to invent their own methods

3. TO MMET THE NEEDS

4.OF SUCH CHILDREN

 to meet the needs of such children, because the ordinary schools did not supply them.


1.WHEN THESE METHODS

1.1. PROVED SUCCSSFUL

When these methods proved successful with handicapped children, there arose the question of whether they might not yield even

2. BETTER RESULTS

2.1.WITH NON HANDICAPED

2.2.CHILDREN

better results with nonhandicapped children.

During the first decade of the 20th century,

1. THE EDUCATIONIST

1.1. MARIA MONTESSORI

1.2. OF ROME

the educationists Maria Montessori of Rome and

1.OVIDE DECROLY

2.OF BRUSSELS.

.Ovide Decroly of Brussels both

SUCCESSFULLY :

1. APPLIED

2. THEIR EDUCATIONAL

INVENTIONS.

successfully applied their educational inventions in schools for ordinary boys and girls.

The Montessori method’s underlying assumption was the child’s

NEED TO ESCAPE FROM:

1. THE DOMINATION OF PARENT.

2. DOMINATION OF TEACHER

.need to escape from the domination of parent and teacher.


 According to Montessori, children, who are the unhappy victims of adult suppression, have been compelled to adopt defensive measures foreign to their real nature in the struggle to hold their own.


The first move toward the reform of education, therefore, should be directed toward educators: to enlighten their consciences, to remove their perceptions of superiority, and to make them humble and passive in their attitudes toward the young.


The next move should be to provide a new environment in which the child has a chance to live a life of his own.

 In the Montessori method, the senses are separately trained by means of apparatuses calculated to enlist spontaneous interest at the successive stages of mental growth. By similar self-educative devices, the child is led to individual mastery of the basic skills of everyday life and then to schoolwork in arithmetic and grammar.

The Decroly method was essentially a program of work based on centres of interest and educative games.


1.CENTER OF INTERESTS

2.EDUCATIONAL GAMES.


 Its basic feature was the workshop-classroom, in which children freely went about their own occupations. Behind the complex of individual activities was a carefully organized scheme of work based on an analysis of the fundamental needs of the child.

The principle of giving priority to wholes rather than to parts was emphasized in teaching children to read, write, and count, and care was taken to reach a comprehensive view of the experiences of life.

The Montessori and the Decroly methods spread throughout the world and widely influenced attitudes and practices of educating young children.

Pestalozzian principles also

1.ENCOURAGED

1.1.INTRODUCTION:

1.2.MUSIC EDUCATIN

1.3.INTO EARLY CHILDHOOD

encouraged the introduction of music education into early childhood programs. Research showed that music has an undeniable effect on the development of the young child, especially in such areas as movement, temper, and speech and listening patterns.

The four most common methods of early childhood music education were those developed by Émile Jaques-Dalcroze,

Carl Orff, and

Zoltán Kodály, as well as the Comprehensive Musicianship approach.



The Dalcroze method emphasized movement; Orff, dramatization; Kodály, singing games; and Comprehensive Musicianship, exploration and discovery. Another popular method, developed by the Japanese violinist Shinichi Suzuki, was based on the theory that young children learn music in the same way that they learn their first language.

Scientific-realist education

THE SCIENTIFIC :

REALISTIC

EDUCATION.

-UNIV.LAB, GENEVA:1900-


The scientific-realist education movement began in 1900 when Édouard Claparède, then a doctor at the Psychological Laboratory of the University of Geneva,

responded to an appeal from the women in charge of special schools for “backward” and “abnormal” children in Geneva.

The experience allowed him to realize some of the defects of ordinary schools. Not as much thought was given, he argued, to the minds of children as was given to their feet.

Their shoes were of different sizes and shapes, made to fit their feet. When would there be schools to measure?

The psychological principles needed to adapt education to individual children were expounded in his Psychologie de l’enfant et pédagogie experimentale (1905; Experimental Pedagogy and the Psychology of the Child).

 Later Claparède took a leading part in the creation of the J.-J. Rousseau Institute in Geneva, a school of educational sciences to which came students from all over the world.

Theorists such as Claparède hoped to provide a scientific basis for education, an aim that was furthered by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget, who studied in a philosophical and psychological manner the intellectual development of children.

Piaget argued, on the basis of his observations, that development of intelligence exhibits four chief stages and that the sequence is everywhere the same, although the ages in the stages of development may vary from culture to culture.

The first stage takes place during infancy, when children, even before they learn to speak, put objects together (addition) and then separate them (subtraction), perceiving them as collections, rings, networks, and groups. By the age of two or three, a basis has been laid.



The children have developed kinetic muscular intelligence to some degree—they can think with their fingers, their hands, and their bodies. Aided by language, the capacity for symbolic thinking slowly develops, constituting the second stage. Up to the age of seven or eight, some of the fundamental categories of adult thinking are still absent; there is seldom any notion, for instance, of cause-and-effect relationships.

The third stage is that of concrete operation. The child has begun to know how to deal with mental symbols and acquires abstract notions, such as “responsibility.” But the child operates only when in the presence of concrete objects that can be manipulated. Pure abstract thinking is still too difficult. Teaching at this stage must be exceedingly concrete and active; purely verbal teaching is out of place. Only after about 12 years of age, with the onset of adolescence, do children develop the power to deal with formal mental operations not immediately attached to objects. Only then do theories begin to acquire real significance, and only then can purely verbal teaching be used.

The child’s total development, particularly emotional and social growth, also concerned educational reformers. They pointed out the error in assuming that incentives to mental effort are the same for adults and children. The English philosopher Alfred North Whitehead, in his doctrine of the “Cycle of Interests,” put forward a theory in line with the ideas of the reformers. Romance, precision, and generalization, said Whitehead, are the stages through which, rhythmically, mental growth proceeds.

Education should consist in a continual repetition of such cycles. Each lesson in a minor way should form an eddy cycle issuing in its own subordinate process.

Whitehead believed that any scheme of education must be judged by the extent to which it stimulates a child to think. From the beginning of education, children should

1.EXPERIENCE...

 2.THE JOY OF DISCOVERY

experience the joy of discovery.